St. Tikhon’s University Review . Series I: Theology. Philosophy. Religious Studies

The author examines the theology of Ignatius the Deacon regarding the holy icons, a Byzantine author who wrote around the cusp of the eighth and ninth centuries. His theological perceptions are found in the lives of George of Amastris, Gregory the Decapolite, and the patriarchs of Constantinople Tarasius and Nicephoros, all of which he composed. These vitae belong to the genre of hagiographies in high style . They are composed using elegant phraseology and are replete with citations and theological argumentations. Thus, they afford the researcher abundant material for refl ection. Ignatius presents a detailed apology for the holy images. He theorizes on the way they act upon those who view them. Most importantly, he introduces the concept of the so called living images of virtue which are created by the saints in their own persons. Ignatius raises various arguments in favor of the veneration of the icons and refers to the imagery employed by the proponents of iconodoulic theology.

Ignatius the Deacon, iconoclasm, the theory of the holy image, icon, sacred imagery, hagiography

1. Alexander P. The Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople, Oxford, 1958.
2. Anastos M. 1954 “The Ethical Theory of Images Formulated by Iconoclasts in 754 and 815”, in Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 1954, vol. 8, pp. 151–160.
3. Baranov V. A. 2005 “The Vita Tarasii as a Source for Reconstruction of the Iconoclastic Theology”, in Muravjew A., Lurje V. (eds.) Universum Hagiographicum. Mémorial R. P. Michel van Esbroeck, s.j. (1934–2003), Saint-Petersburg, 2005, pp. 89–97.
4. Brubaker L. Vision and Meaning in Byzantium, Cambridge, 1999.
5. Efthymiadis S. 1991 “On the Hagiographical Work of Ignatius the Deacon”, in Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik, 1991, vol. 41, pp. 73–83.
6. Kazhdan A. “George of Amastris”, in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 837.
7. Kazhdan A., Patterson-Ševčenko N. “Gregory of Decapolis”, in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 880.
8. Kazhdan A. “Tarasios”, in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, vol. 3, p. 2011.
9. Kazhdan A. “Nicephoros I”, in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, vol. 3, p. 1477.
10. Makris G. Ignatios Diakonos und die Vita des Hl. Gregorios Dekapolites, Stuttgart; Leipzig, 1997.
11. Ševčenko I. 1977 “Hagiography of the Iconoclast Period”, in Iconoclasm, Birmingham, 1977, pp. 113–131.
12. Treadgold W. 1988–1989 “Three Byzantine Provinces and the First Byzantine Contacts with the Rus”, in Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 1988–1989, vol. 12–13, pp. 132–144.
14. Wolska-Conus W. 1980 “Une programme iconographique du patriarche Tarasios?“, in Revue des études byzantines, 1980, vol. 38, pp. 247–254.
15. Averincev S. S. Pojetika rannevizantijskoj literatury (Poetics of Early Byzantian Literature), Saint-Petersburg, 2004.
16. Afinogenov D. E. “Ignatij Diakon” (Ignatius the Deacon), in Pravoslavnaja jenciklopedija, vol. 21, pp. 147–148.
17. Afinogenova O. N. “Georgij Amastridskij” (George of Amastride), in Pravoslavnaja jenciklopedija, vol. 10, pp. 656–658.
18. Bychkov V. V. Fenomen ikony (Phenomenon of Icon), Moscow, 2009.
19. Bychkov V. V. 1984 “Formirovanie osnovnyh principov vizantijskoj jestetiki” (Formation of Basic Principles of Byzantine Esthetics), in Kul'tura Vizantii IV – pervaja polovina VII v., Moscow, 1984, pp. 478–203.
20. Vasil'evskij V. G. Trudy (Works), Petrograd, 1915, vol. 3.
21. Zaplatnikov S. V. 2012 “Koncepcija zritel'nogo Pisanija v trudah patriarha Germana Konstantinopol'skogo” (Concept of Eye Scripture in Works of Patriarch Germanos of Constantinople), in Vestnik PSTGU. Serija I: Bogoslovie. Filosofija, 2012, vol. 4/42, pp. 97–110.
22. Kazhdan A. P. Istorija vizantijskoj literatury (650–850 gg.) (History of Byzantine Literature (650–850)), Saint-Petersburg, 2002.
23. Luhovickij L. V., Artjuhova T. A., Zheltov M., diak., Shevchenko Je. V. “Grigorij Dekapolit” (Gregorius Decapolite), in Pravoslavnaja jenciklopedija, vol. 12, pp. 716–719.
24. Stasjuk V., ierej. Karl Velikij i Sed'moj Vselenskij sobor. Karolingskie knigi (Charles the Great and the Seventh Ecumenical Council. Caroling Books), Moscow, 2012.

Izotova Ol'ga

The author discusses ecclesiastical governance using one of the most meaningful contemporary ecclesiological models - Eucharistic ecclesiology. Conceived by the noted Orthodox theologian Nikolay Afanasyev, this idea became very popular in both Orthodox and non-Orthodox Christian theology. Its underlying concept underlines the role of the people of God who assemble for the Eucharist to partake of the Body of Christ as united in one Body with Christ and thus becoming one Body with Christ. This is, according to Saint Paul, the Church in all its fullness. The unity of the Eucharistic assembly as an empirical manifestation of the Body of Christ requires the local Church to also act as one body. The paper considers two examples of Eucharistic moduls (that of Nikolay Afanasiev and that of John Zizioulas) and examines how the local church acts and makes decisions, and governance is dispersed throughout the body of the local Church. The author points out that in both examples the people play a rather passive role and merely act on that which the bishop decides. The article touches upon a question on possibility/impossibility of negative reception of the presider’s activity by the people. Also the author confirms an idea of principal insensibility of the Eucharistic ecclesiology to any individualization in the decision-making process.

bishop, Body of Christ, church governance, corporate personality, ecclesiology, Eucharist, John Zizioulas, Nikolay Afanasiev, people of God, primacy, power structure

1. Afanas'ev N. 1934 “Dve idei vselenskoj Cerkvi” (Two Ideas of Ecumenical Church), in Put', 1934, vol. 45, pp. 16–29.
2. Afanas'ev N. 1956 “O cerkovnom upravlenii i uchitel'stve” (About Church Administration and Teaching), in Cerkovnyj Vestnik Zapadno-Evropejskogo Pravoslavnogo Jekzarhata, 1956, vol. 60, pp. 18–25.
3. Afanas'ev N., prot. 1999 “«Stacio orbis»”, in Pravoslavnaja obshhina, 1999, vol. 1/49.
4. Afanas'ev N., prot. 1996 “Una Sancta”, in Pravoslavnaja obshhina, 1996, vol. 4/34.
5. Afanas'ev N., prot. Trapeza Gospodnja (Meal of Lord), Riga, 1992.
6. Afanas'ev N., prot. Cerkovnye sobory i ih proishozhdenie (Church Councils and Their Origin), Moscow, 2003.
7. Afanas'ev N., prot. Cerkov' Duha Svjatogo (Church of Holy Spirit), Paris, 1971.
8. Afanassieff N. 1992 “The Сhurch Which Presides in Love”, in The Primacy of Peter, Crestwood, 1992, pp. 91–143.
9. Cavanaugh W. Torture and Eucharist: Theology, Politics, and the Body of Christ, Blackwell Publishing, 1998.
10. Guroian V. Incarnate Love: Essays in the Orthodox Ethics, Notre Dame, 1989.
11. Kantorowicz E.H. The King’s Two Bodies, Princeton, 1997.
12. Lubac H. de. Corpus Mysticum: The Eucharist and the Church in the Middle Ages, Notre Dame, 2007.
13. Manoussakis J. P. God After Metaphysics: A Theological Aesthetics, Indianapolis, 2007.
14. Marion J.-L. God Without Being, Chicago, 2012.
15. McPartlan P.G. The Eucharist Makes the Church: Henry De Lubac and John Zizioulas in Dialogue, Edinburgh, 1993.
16. Nichols A. Theology in the Russian Diaspora: Church, Fathers, Eucharist in Nikolai Afanas’ev (1893–1966), Cambridge, 1989.
17. Papanikolau A. The Mystical as Political: Democracy and Non-Radical Orthodoxy, Notre Dame, 2012.
18. Volf M. After Our Likeness. The Church as the Image of the Trinity, Grand Rapids, 1998.
19. Zizioulas J. Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the Church, Crestwood, 1997.
20. Zizioulas J. Eucharist, Bishop, Church: The Unity of the Church in the Divine Eucharist and the Bishop During the First Three Centuries, Brookline, 2001.
21. Zizioulas J. 1999 “Primacy in the Church: An Orthodox Approach”, in James F. (ed.) Petrine Ministry and the Unity of the Church: Toward a Patient and Fraternal Dialogue, Puglisi SA, Collegeville, 1999, pp. 115–126.
22. Zizioulas J. 2010 “The Bishop in the Theological Doctrine of the Orthodox Church”, in The One and the Many: Studies on God, Man, the Church, and the World Today, Alhambra, 2010.
23. Zizioulas J. 2010 “The Development of Conciliar Structures to the Time of the First Ecumenical Council”, in The One and the Many: Studies on God, Man, the Church, and the World Today, Alhambra, 2010.

Shishkov Andrei

The author’s concerns are with the philosophical and theological problems integral to German Speculative Idealism. Two key ideas permeated the whole of German Idealism: the idea of divine self-realization / self-understanding and the idea of gravitating between the poles of theism and pantheism. The author attempts to explain how these two ideas are related throughout the course of German Idealism. He includes in this study not only Fichte /the elder/, Schelling, and Hegel, but also the so-called speculative theists (Fichte /the younger/ and others), whose thought in both ideology and methodology resembles that of Schelling and Hegel. The author demonstrates using the writings of the philosophers that the two ideas may be related though the concept of creativity . If God realizes himself in the world and through the world, then it makes sense to say that philosophical theology is replete with pantheism. But if the divine realization takes place ontologically before the process of creation and is in itself an act which takes place within the divine Being Himself, the process is then clearly theistic. Idealists of the older school do not link creation with the Absolute - they reject this point or they speak about creation in reference to the act of divine self-realization. Idealists of the younger generation, on the contrary, hold that the act of divine self-realization precedes that of creation. The author opines that it is this point which allows us to diff erentiate between a philosophical system which leans towards pantheism from one which tends toward theism. The older idealists were indeed mostly pantheists, while the younger generation was mostly theistic. In view of this, German Idealism may be considered to be divided into two periods

Fichte (the elder), Schelling, Hegel, Fichte (the younger), Hermann Ulrici, R. Rothe, philosophical theology, divine self-realization, theism, pantheism, creation

1. Drews A. Die deutsche Spekulation seit Kant mit besonderer Rücksicht auf das Wesen des Absoluten und die Persönlichkeit Gottes, Berlin, 1893, vol. 1; Leipzig, 1895, vol. 2.
2. Jaeschke W. 1981 “Absolute Idee — absolute Subjektivität. Zum Problem der Persönlichkeit Gottes in der Logik und in der Religionsphilosophie“, in Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung, 1981, vol. 35, pp. 385–416.
3. Krötke H. Selbstbewusstsein und Spekulation, Berlin, 1999.
4. Leese K. Philosophie und Theologie im Spätidealismus, Berlin, 1929.
5. Schneider A. Personalität und Wirklichkeit, Würzburg, 2001.
6. Zolotuhin V. V. 2014 “K voprosu ob osnovnoj idee nemeckogo spekuljativnogo idealizma“ (To Question about Main Idea of German Speculative Idealism), in Vestnik MGU. Serija 7. Filosofija, 2014, vol. 5, pp. 16–28.
7. Chernyshev B. S. 2010 “Predislovie k perevodu“ (Introduction to Translation), in Bruno B. Trubnyj glas strashnogo suda nad Gegelem, Moscow, 2010, pp. 15–17.

Zolotukhin Vsevolod

The authors examine two stages in the philosophical-theological thought of Schleiermacher. The first is the product of his Sentences about Religion (1799); the second is based on his Introduction to Dogmatics (1822). They are placed in the context of the evolution of European philosophical and theological thought of the Modern Epoch and of the twentieth century. The authors first delineate the sources of Schleiermacher’s thought and proceed to analyze its influence on successive theological thought. In his first period, Schleiermacher understands religion as the feeling and taste for the infi nite . The authors of this article immediately exclude all subjective and psychological, as well as pantheistic and determinative interpretations of this experience of the inexpressible. In their opinion, Schleiermacher like Karl Barth, wished to keep religion and revelation in its own, unique domain. Schleiermacher’s Sentences about Religion contains all the fundamental elements, both implicit and explicit, which constitute a philosophical discourse about the sacred. In his second period, Schleiermacher uses a more exact concept than of feeling which he calls direct self-realization . The authors analyze Schleiermacher’s understanding of the structure and evolution of man’s self-realization. The highest degree of self-realization is piety or religiosity. Religious realization itself becomes the material for the formation of dogma. The authors analyze how concretely Schleiermacher wishes to say Lutheran dogma is formed. They conclude that Schleiermacher is successful in expressing the Christian kerygma, conserving its irreducibility. While assimilating current philosophical trends, Schleiermacher is careful to conserve the essence of Christian dogma.

Schleiermacher, philosophical theology, feeling of dependence, sacred, piety, self-realization, dogmatics

1. Bart K. Cerkovnaja dogmatika (Church Dogmatics), Moscow, 2007, vol. 1.
2. Tillih P. Sistematicheskoe bogoslovie (Systematic Theology), Saint-Petersburg, 1998, vol. 1.
3. Barth K. Die protestantische Theologie im 19. Jahrhundert, Zürich, 1994.
4. Moretto G. Das Heilige im Denken, Münster, 2005.
5. Pannenberg W. Problemgeschichte der neueren evangelischen Theologie in Deutschland, Göttingen, 1997.

Pylaev Maksim

The author examines the meaning of the Old Testament corpus contained in the Greek translation of the Septuagint in order to better understand the anthropology of the Bible on the basis of the work of classifi cation done by G. Wolff in his survey. The author studies the derivation of terminology and defines its original meaning. This is fundamental for the study of the way the human person was conceived on the cusp of the Old and New Testaments. The Septuagint translation may be analyzed under two aspects: etymology and interpretation. In many cases, the translation allows us to understand more clearly how the translators understood not only individual words but also whole concepts. The author understands the term biblical anthropology in the German sense as the description of the nature of the human person and his place in the world from the point of view of the Bible. The author highlights the semantics underlying the use of the term body (soma), which in itself is poorly conveyed by ancient Hebrew, but which is used in the Septuagint in a way consistent with that employed by the New Testament. The word body describes the figure of the human person with great objectivity and is itself replete with definite descriptive attributes. Also new is the understanding of the word spirit (pneuma), which, in this case, is used to describe a person. In this context, it begins to enter the anthropological lexicon and at the same time foreshadows its use in the problematic surrounding early-Christian trichotomy.

Bible, Septuagint, anthropology, human being, translation, terminology

1. Alekseev A. A. 2007 “Septuaginta i ee literaturnoe okruzhenie” (Septuagint and Its Literary Context), in Bogoslovskie trudy, vol. 41, Moscow, 2007, pp. 212—259.
2. Vajngrin Dzh. Vvedenie v tekstologiju Vethogo Zaveta (Introduction to Textial Studies of the Old Testament), Moscow, 2002.
3. Kirsberg I. V. Fenomenologija zhizni: Vethij Zavet i pervye hristiane (Life Phenomenology: Old Testament and First Christians), Moscow, 2003.
4. Nesmelov V. I. Nauka o cheloveke (Human Science), Kazan, 1906, vol. 2.
5. Lang B. (ed.) Anthropological Approaches to the Old Testament, London, 1985.
6. Barr J. The Semantics of Biblical Language, Oxford, 1961.
7. The Cambridge History of the Bible, Cambridge, 1970, vol. 1.
8. Dorival G., Harl M., Munnich O. La Bible Grecque des Septante. Du judaïsme hellénistique au christianisme ancient, Paris, 1994.
9. Barclay J. (ed.) Early Christian Thought in its Jewish Context, Cambridge, 1996.
10. Kaiser O. 2000 “Die Bedeutung der griechischen Welt für die alttestamentische Theologie“, in Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. I. Philologisch-historische Klasse, 2000, vol. 7.
11. Kümmel W. G. Römer 7 und das Bild des Menschen im Neuen Testament. Zwei Studien, München, 1974.
12. Pedersen J. Israel: It’s Life and Culture, Atlanta, 1991, vol. 1.
13. Prijs L. Jüdische Tradition in der Septuaginta, Leiden, 1948.
14. Robinson H.W. The Religious Ideas of the Old Testament, New York, 1921.
15. Rogerson J. W. Anthropology and the Old Testament, Oxford, 1978.
16. Rösel M. 2006 “Towards a “Theology of the Septuagint””, in Septuagint Research: Issues and Challenges in the Study of the Greek Jewish Scriptures, Atlanta, 2006, pp. 239—252.
17. Wolff H. W. Anthropologie des Alten Testaments, Gütersloh, 1994.

Veviurko Il'ia

Both religious modernism and religious fundamentalism appeared as problems in academic and theological literature at the beginning of the 20th century. They came about as the result of the dynamic development of modernistic ideology in Russia, the United States, Western Europe and the Islamic world. Today, the concepts of religious modernism and religious fundamentalism are widely used to describe religious processes and phenomena which are the result of interaction between religion (as a dynamic spiritual and social subsystem) and society - as a social system experiencing evolution. The concept of religious modernism is traditionally associated with religious renewal, the contemporary world, and innovation. Fundamentalism, on the contrary, is an ideological commitment to the “roots and origins” of religion. Under the aegis of fundamentalism, any religious idea, value or concept has a right to exist. Religious Studies, during the course of time and the production of ever new material, encountered a serious theoretic-methodological problem: How can various religious movements and religious traditions be organized into groups since some of them combine elements of religious modernism and of religious fundamentalism? Already at the end of the nineteen-eighties, the well-established view defining “fundamentalism-modernism” as contrary positions had to be rethought. Studies dating from the nineteen-nineties and the beginning of the new millennium concentrated on noting the social origins and the political character of these phenomena. They demonstrated that neither fundamentalism nor modernism present the whole picture. The lines dividing them are so blurred, that they become confl uent. Consequently, the author concludes that religious fundamentalism and religious modernism are ambivalent phenomena, which can, on occasion, interact with each other.

religious modernism, religious fundamentalism, religious renovation, identification of alternative religious ideologies

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3. Gurevich P. 1995 “Fundamentalizm i modernizm kak kul'turnye orientacii” (Fundamentalism and Modernism as Cultural Orientation), in Obshhestvennye nauki i sovremennost', 1995, vol. 4, pp. 154–162.
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5. Oden T. K. Posle modernizma. Chto vperedi…? (After Modernism. What Will Be after…?), Minsk, 2003.
6. Stepanova E. A. 2008 “Fundamentalizm i manija identichnosti” (Fundamentalism and Mania of Identity), in Nauchnyj ezhegodnik Instituta filosofii i prava Ural'skogo otdelenija Rossijskoj akademii nauk, 2008, vol. 8, pp. 94–116.
7. Troickij S. V. Chto takoe modernizm: Jenciklika Pija X «Pascendi Dominici gregis» i ee znachenie (What Is Modernism: Encyclic of Pius X “Pascendi Dominici gregis” and Its Meaning), Saint-Petersburg, 1908.
8. Levin Z. I. (ed.) Fundamentalizm (Fundamentalism), Moscow, 2003.
9. Chelishhev V. I. Fundamentalizm i fundamentalisty (Fundamentalism and Fundamentalists), Moscow, 2010.
10. Chel'cov M., prot. Sushhnost' cerkovnogo obnovlenija (Essence of Church Renewal), Saint-Petersburg, 1907.
11. Barr J. Fundamentalism, Philadelphia, 1978.
12. Beeman W. O. 2002 “Fighting the Good Fight: Fundamentalism and Religious Revival”, in Macclancy J. (ed.) Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front Lines, Chicago, 2002, pp. 129–144.
13. Bell D. The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism, New York, 1976.
14. Brasher B. E. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism, New York, 2001.
15. Martym M. E., Appleby S. R. (eds.) Fundamentalisms Comprehended, Chicago, 1995.
16. Fundamentalisms Observed / M. E. Martym, S. R. Appleby, eds. Chicago, 1991.
17. Munson H. 2006 “Fundamentalism”, in Segal R. A., ed. The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion, Malden, 2006, pp. 255–269.
18. Riesebrodt M. 2004 “Die fundamentalistische Erneuerung der Religionen“, in Kindelberger K. (ed.) Fundamentalismus. Politisierte Religionen, Potsdam, 2004, pp. 10–27.
19. Caplan L. (ed.) Studies in Religious Fundamentalism, Albany, 1987.

Golovushkin Dmitrii

The notions of «religious awakening» and «religious revival» refer to processes which took place in the history of European civilization. These notions are widely used in academic language and literature. During the last third of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty-first century, a global phenomenon emerged which can be described as «de-secularization», «religious revival» or «spiritual awakening». This was characteristic of all religions. Sociologists, researchers of religions and political scientists have begun to discuss its nature and character. The author attempts to place it in the broader context of Western European and Russian history of the last five hundred years. He wishes to examine it with reference to the cyclic-wave theory of social development. He introduces the concept of «religious tension» defined as the idea that mankind and the individual cannot be in a state of constant religious tension. Following the wave of spiritual tension or religious revival a «return wave» of spiritual indifference or tranquility succeeds. The two periods taken together constitute a single cycle. As a criterion for assessing the presence or absence of tension, the author highlights popular piety and the religious atmosphere just before the Protestant Reformation. These models are later employed as part of a pattern underlining similar characteristics of religious life at other times. The first section of the article presents the theory behind the problem and the characteristics of the return wave lasting from 1930 to 1960. This was the wave that served as the basis for the theory of secularization. The second section of the article highlights the religious tension characteristic of the second half of the twentieth and the start of the twenty-fi rst century.

waves, cycles, tension, renewal, the conditions fro salvation, types of piety, sects, secularization/de-secularization, Reformation, anti-clericalism, Jaspers, Eisenstadt, Schlesinger, Buné, S. Lebedev, Uzlaner, Filatov, Furman, Kääriä

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